Over the past decade, two-dimensional (2D) materials have completely changed how we think about advanced technologies. It started with graphene, but the family has grown: metal dichalcogenides, boron nitride, and now a particularly exciting class called MXenes.

Among MXenes, one member is drawing special attention: Nb₂CTx (niobium carbide MXene). Thanks to its excellent conductivity, rich surface chemistry, and layered 2D structure, Nb₂CTx is becoming a star candidate for energy storage, sensors, catalysis, biomedicine, and more.

1. What Are MXenes, and Where Does Nb₂CTx Fit In?

MXenes are 2D materials made from transition metal carbides or nitrides. Their general formula is:

Mₙ₊₁XₙTₓ

• M = early transition metal (e.g., Ti, Nb)

• X = carbon and/or nitrogen

• Tₓ = surface terminations (–O, –OH, –F, –Cl, etc.)

• n = 1–3 (describes how many layers of M and X there are)

To create MXenes, researchers start from layered “MAX phases” (like Nb₂AlC), where an “A” element (often Al) sits between M–X layers. By selectively etching out this A-layer, you “peel” the structure into 2D MXene sheets.

Nb₂CTx is a niobium-based MXene derived from Nb₂AlC. It has:

• 2D layered structure

• High electrical conductivity

• Tunable surface terminations

• Good mechanical strength

• Hydrophilicity (likes water)

Because of this combination, Nb₂CTx is being explored for:

• Supercapacitors and batteries

• Sensors (gas, humidity, strain)

• Catalysts and photocatalysts

• Biomedicine (cancer therapy, bone regeneration, ROS scavenging)

• EMI shielding and microwave absorption

The review article you provided focuses on “Nb₂CTx MXenes: from fundamentals to new applications”, especially in electrochemical energy storage, but it also covers many other areas.

2. How Nb₂CTx MXene Is Made: From MAX Phase to 2D Sheets

2.1 Top-Down Synthesis: Etching the MAX Phase

Most Nb₂CTx MXene is currently produced using top-down methods, starting from the MAX phase Nb₂AlC. The goal is to remove Al layers, leaving 2D Nb₂C sheets.

The most common strategy is chemical etching:

• Traditionally, concentrated hydrofluoric acid (HF) has been used.

• HF dissolves the Al layers and introduces surface terminations like –OH and –F.

• This produces stacked, accordion-like Nb₂CTx, which can be further delaminated into thin or even single-layer flakes.

Different groups have used:

• HF concentrations from ~35–50%

• Temperatures around 55–60 °C

• Etching times ranging from several hours to a couple of days

• Additional steps like KOH treatment, tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAOH), or sonication to delaminate layers

The advantages of HF-based etching:

• Simple

• Scalable in principle

• Widely used and well-understood

The disadvantages:

• HF is highly toxic and corrosive

• Safety and environmental concerns

• Limits industrial-scale production

Because of this, there is strong interest in safer alternatives.

2.2 Safer and Alternative Routes

Some alternative methods include:

• In situ HF generation using mixtures like LiF + HCl, which are somewhat safer than concentrated HF.

• Molten salt etching, where a mixture of salts (e.g., CuCl₂/NaCl/KCl) is heated to form a Lewis acidic melt that can selectively remove the A-layer.

• Other composite synthesis routes, such as electrostatic self-assembly, hydrothermal methods, or mechanochemical processing to combine Nb₂CTx with other materials (e.g., MoS₂, ZnO, CNTs, polymers).

So far, Nb₂CTx has mainly been prepared by top-down etching. True bottom-up methods (like chemical vapor deposition or atomic layer deposition) are still largely undeveloped for MXenes because of cost, complexity, and stability issues.

Going forward, one key research direction is:

Developing environmentally friendly, scalable, HF-free synthesis routes for Nb₂CTx.

3. Key Properties of Nb₂CTx MXene

To understand why Nb₂CTx is so versatile, it helps to look at its core properties.

3.1 Mechanical Properties

Nb-based MXenes such as Nb₄C₃Tx and Nb₂CTx show:

• High Young’s modulus (stiffness)

• High breaking strength

For example, monolayer Nb₄C₃Tx shows a very high modulus and strength compared to other 2D materials like graphene oxide or Ti₃C₂Tx. That means Nb-MXenes can be used in mechanically demanding contexts, such as flexible devices, coatings, membranes, and structural composites.

3.2 Magnetic and Superconducting Behavior

Many 2D materials are non-magnetic, but MXenes can be tuned toward interesting electronic and magnetic states. For niobium MXenes:

• Functional groups and strain can influence magnetism.

• Nb₂CTx has been reported to show superconducting behavior at low temperature (Meissner effect and diamagnetism).

This doesn’t yet translate into products, but it makes Nb₂CTx interesting for fundamental physics and future spintronic or quantum devices.

3.3 Electrical Conductivity

One of the standout features of MXenes, including Nb₂CTx, is very high electrical conductivity:

• MXenes can reach conductivities higher than many other synthetic 2D materials.

• Conductivity depends on layer number, surface terminations, synthesis conditions, and post-treatments (like calcination).

• Nb₄C₃Tx, for example, can be over 100× more conductive than Nb₂CTx due to its thicker, more metal-rich structure.

High conductivity is crucial for:

• Electrodes in batteries and supercapacitors

• Electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding

• Current collectors and conductive inks

3.4 Oxidation Stability

A practical issue for MXenes is oxidation over time, especially in water or air.

For Nb-based MXenes:

• Nb₄C₃Tx tends to be more oxidation-resistant than Nb₂CTx because some layers are “shielded” inside.

• Adding antioxidants (e.g., ascorbic acid) and storing at low temperature can significantly improve stability.

• Still, oxidation remains a challenge, especially for long-term applications and aqueous dispersions.

3.5 Electrochemical Performance

For electrochemical applications, Nb₂CTx offers:

• High electrical conductivity

• Layered structure that allows ion intercalation

• Good redox activity and charge reversibility

• Reasonable capacitance in aqueous systems

These properties make Nb₂CTx attractive as:

• An electrode material for supercapacitors

• An anode or cathode component in various batteries (Li-ion, Na-ion, K-ion, Al-ion, Li–S, etc.)

3.6 Hydrophilicity

Nb₂CTx is strongly hydrophilic thanks to its surface terminations and oxygen-containing groups. That means:

• It disperses well in water.

• It forms good interfaces with aqueous electrolytes.

• It can be integrated into water purification systems, membranes, and hydrogels.

Interestingly, the review text has a small confusion between hydrophilic and hydrophobic wording, but the practical takeaway is:

Nb₂CTx interacts very well with water and can host ions in aqueous environments, which is beneficial for energy storage and environmental applications.

3.7 Thermal and Optical Properties

• Thermal: Nb₂CTx shows high thermal stability and relatively good thermal conductivity, making it a candidate for thermal management and high-temperature applications.

• Optical: Its optical absorption can be tuned by surface terminations or by combining with other materials. Composites like Nb₂CTx/g-C₃N₄ show enhanced light absorption and are promising for photocatalysis.

4. Where Nb₂CTx Is Being Used (or Tested)

Now the fun part: applications. The review you provided walks through many fields. Below is a simplified, application-focused overview.

4.1 Gas Sensing

Why Nb₂CTx works for gas sensors:

• High surface area

• Rich surface chemistry (–O, –OH, –F, etc.)

• Good conductivity and 2D morphology

A highlight example is NO₂ sensing:

• Nb₂CTx was functionalized with an organosilane (APTES) to add amine groups.

• The resulting material showed enhanced sensitivity and stability to NO₂ gas over extended periods.

• The sensing mechanism is based on electron transfer between gas molecules, functional groups, and the MXene, leading to measurable resistance changes.

Potential uses:

• Environmental monitoring

• Industrial safety

• Smart air-quality sensors

4.2 Supercapacitors

MXenes are famous for their high volumetric capacitance. Nb₂CTx-based electrodes show:

• Specific capacitances in the hundreds of F/g range (depending on electrolyte and structure).

• Further enhancement when combined with metals like Ni or conductive additives like carbon nanotubes.

Examples from the review:

• Pristine Nb₂CTx on Ni foam: decent capacitance.

• Ni-doped Nb₂CTx: much higher specific capacitance and good cycling stability (~81% retention over 10,000 cycles).

• Nb₂CTx/CNT composites in asymmetric devices achieved high energy and power densities.

In short, Nb₂CTx:

Is a very strong candidate for high-power, fast-charging supercapacitors, especially when combined with other conductive or pseudocapacitive materials.

4.3 Batteries (Li-Ion, Na-Ion, Al-Ion, Li–S, etc.)

Nb₂CTx can host a variety of ions between its layers, including Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Al³⁺.

Some notable systems:

• Aluminum-ion batteries:
  Nb₂CTx used as a cathode with Al anode and AlCl₃-based ionic liquid electrolyte showed reversible Al-based ion storage and reasonably high capacities after many cycles, especially after calcination (which forms some oxides and carbon).

• Sodium-ion batteries:
  Nb₂CTx@MoS₂@C 3D hybrids achieved:

  • High reversible capacities (hundreds of mAh/g)

  • Very good rate performance

  • Excellent cycling stability over thousands of cycles

• Li–S batteries and HER (dual application):
  MoS₂/Nb₂C hybrids worked well as Li–S cathode hosts (high specific capacity and retention) and also as effective catalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction.

Across these systems, Nb₂CTx contributes:

• High conductivity

• Structural buffering

• Extra active sites when combined with other materials

• Better rate capability and cycle life

4.4 Catalysis and Photocatalysis

Nb₂CTx and related Nb-MXenes are involved in several catalytic roles:

• Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER):
  Nb₄C₃Tx has shown promising HER activity, with enhanced long-term stability in both acidic and alkaline environments.

• Photocatalytic hydrogen production:
  Nb₂O₅/C/Nb₂C hybrids (formed by controlled oxidation of Nb₂CTx) showed much higher hydrogen generation rates than pure Nb₂O₅, thanks to better charge separation at the Nb₂O₅–Nb₂C interface.

• CO₂ conversion (photothermal catalysis):
  Nb₂CTx-supported Ni nanoparticles have exhibited high CO₂ conversion rates under light, leveraging MXene’s photothermal properties.

• Organic pollutant degradation:
  Nb₂CTx-containing hybrids (e.g., Bi₂WO₆/Nb₂CTx) have been used to degrade dyes and antibiotics under light, with improved degradation rates compared to the oxide alone.

4.5 Biomedical Applications

Nb₂CTx is surprisingly active in the biomedical arena due to:

• Biocompatibility (when properly surface-modified)

• Biodegradability in some environments

• Strong interaction with reactive oxygen species (ROS)

• Excellent photothermal response in NIR-I and NIR-II windows

Examples include:

• Photothermal cancer therapy:
  Nb₂CTx nanosheets (often surface-coated with PVP or mesoporous silica and PEG) can absorb NIR light and convert it to heat, killing tumor cells. They can also act as drug carriers for combined chemo-photothermal therapy.

• Bone cancer treatment and bone regeneration:
  Nb₂CTx-loaded scaffolds (e.g., 3D-printed bone grafts) can ablate osteosarcoma cells under NIR and simultaneously support bone healing and vascularization.

• ROS scavenging:
  Nb₂CTx can mop up harmful ROS, helping in conditions like osteolysis or radiation damage. Studies in mice have shown reduced tissue damage and good long-term safety with degradable Nb₂CTx-based systems.

• Antibacterial and implant coatings:
  Nb₂CTx integrated into titanium implants can help kill bacteria (via photothermal mechanisms) while promoting tissue regeneration.

Overall, Nb₂CTx is emerging as a multifunctional biomedical platform, although clinical translation will require thorough safety and degradation studies.

4.6 EMI Shielding and Microwave Absorption

Because of its:

• High conductivity

• Layered structure

• Ability to form composites with rGO, Fe₃O₄, wax, etc.

Nb₂CTx is very promising for:

• Electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, where composites can achieve high shielding efficiencies at GHz frequencies.

• Microwave absorption, where Nb₂O₅/Nb₂CTx hybrids show strong absorption over a wide frequency range, useful for stealth, communications, and device protection.

5. Commercial Prospects: Where Could Nb₂CTx Go Next?

From the review, several near-term commercial directions are visible:

• Energy storage

  • Electrodes for supercapacitors with higher volumetric capacitance than traditional carbons.

  • Anode/cathode components for next-generation Li-ion, Na-ion, K-ion, Al-ion, and Li–S batteries, where higher capacity, faster charging, and better stability are essential.

• Sensors and smart devices

  • Gas sensors (NO₂, NH₃, etc.)

  • Strain and pressure sensors for wearable electronics, robotics, and health monitoring.

• Antibacterial and biomedical materials

  • Smart implants, wound dressings, bone scaffolds, photothermal patches.

• Environmental and catalytic systems

  • Photocatalytic water treatment

  • Photothermal CO₂ conversion

  • Hydrogen generation catalysts

• EMI and microwave shielding

  • Lightweight, flexible shielding materials for electronics, aerospace, and defense.

In all these cases, Nb₂CTx brings a unique combination of conductivity, redox activity, mechanical robustness, and surface chemistry.

6. Challenges and Future Directions

Despite the impressive progress, several big challenges remain:

1. Safe, scalable synthesis

   • Traditional HF-etching is dangerous and not ideal for large-scale production.

   • Research is needed on green etchants and HF-free processes that still give high-quality Nb₂CTx.

2. Controlled structure and terminations

   • Surface chemistry (Tₓ groups) highly affects properties but is hard to control precisely.

   • New methods are needed to tune and homogenize terminations (–O, –F, –OH, etc.) and morphology (single-layer vs. multilayer).

3. Stability and aggregation

   • Nb₂CTx can oxidize and restack, reducing surface area and performance.

   • Strategies to prevent aggregation and improve long-term stability in devices are crucial.

4. Cost and raw materials

   • MAX precursors and complex chemical routes add cost.

   • More economical synthesis and better use of abundant resources are needed for real commercialization.

5. Deeper mechanistic understanding

   • Especially for energy storage: we need clearer models of ion insertion, charge storage mechanisms, and structure–property relationships to design truly optimized materials.

6. Expanding real-world applications

   • Many applications are still at the lab scale.

   • Moving from proof-of-concept to practical devices (supercapacitors, flexible electrodes, implants, shielding materials) will require engineering, standardization, and life-cycle assessment.

7. Take-Home Message

Nb₂CTx MXene is no longer just a “new material” — it is evolving into a versatile platform for energy, environment, electronics, and biomedicine.

It offers:

• High conductivity

• 2D layered structure

• Tunable surface chemistry

• Good electrochemical, thermal, and mechanical properties

• Rich composite chemistry with polymers, oxides, CNTs, and metals

From supercapacitors and batteries to gas sensors, photocatalysts, antibacterial surfaces, bone scaffolds, and EMI shielding, Nb₂CTx is showing up everywhere in advanced materials research.

There are still serious challenges related to synthesis, stability, cost, and scale-up, but the trajectory is clear: Nb₂CTx MXene is one of the most promising 2D materials for the next generation of energy and functional devices.